Cenozoic

Cenozoic refers to the third and most recent geological era in the Phanerozoic Eon, which began about 66 million years ago and is ongoing.  It is characterized by the evolution and diversification of mammals and birds, as well as the emergence of flowering plants.  The Cenozoic era is divided into the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary periods.

Cerebroform

Cerebroform is a term used to describe topographic features that resemble the shape of the human brain.  This term is typically used to describe landscapes with curving ridges and valleys that resemble the convolutions of the cerebral cortex.  The term “cerebroform” is derived from the Latin word “cerebrum,” meaning brain.

Cenote

A cenote is a natural sinkhole formed by the collapse of limestone bedrock that exposes the groundwater beneath.  Cenotes are common in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico and were considered sacred by the Mayans, who believed they were gateways to the underworld.  Cenotes are often used for swimming and diving, and their clear blue water and unique geology make them popular tourist attractions.

Chalk

Chalk is a soft, white, porous sedimentary rock made up of the skeletal remains of marine organisms, such as coccoliths and foraminifera.  It is commonly found in the form of cliffs and steep slopes along coastlines and in some inland regions.  Chalk has been used for various purposes, including as a building material, in agriculture, and as a writing surface.

Chaparral

Clastic

Clastic is a term used to describe sedimentary rocks that are composed of fragments of other rocks or minerals.  These fragments, known as clasts, can vary in size from tiny particles to boulders.  The type of clasts found in a sedimentary rock can provide important information about the environment in which the rock was formed.  For example, sandstone is a clastic rock composed of sand-sized grains, indicating that it was formed in a desert or beach environment. Shale, on the other hand, is a clastic rock composed of tiny clay particles, suggesting that it was formed in a quiet, low-energy environment such as a lake or deep ocean floor.

Cliff

A cliff is a vertical or near-vertical rock face that is formed by erosion or other geological processes.  Cliffs can be found in coastal regions, mountainous areas, and other areas with steep terrain.  These natural formations are often popular tourist attractions due to their dramatic beauty and stunning views. However, they can also be dangerous, especially if people attempt to climb them without proper equipment and training.

Cliff Drops

Cliff drops refer to the vertical distance between the top of a cliff and the bottom.  This measurement is often used in civil engineering and construction projects to determine the necessary equipment and techniques needed to build structures on or near cliffs.

Clinoform

A clinoform is a type of geological formation that is created by the deposition of sediment on a sloping surface.  These formations are often found in coastal areas and are important in understanding the history of the region’s geology and sea level changes.

Closed Contour

A closed contour is a line on a topographic map that connects points of equal elevation.  These lines form closed loops and are used to represent the shape and elevation of land features such as hills, mountains, and valleys.  Closed contours can be used to calculate the steepness of terrain, the volume of soil or rock removed during construction, and other important information for civil engineering projects.

Coast Engineering Survey

Coastal engineering survey is a process of identifying, analyzing, and addressing the issues related to coastal areas.  Coastal areas are constantly changing due to the movement of sand, erosion, and other natural processes.  A coastal engineering survey helps to identify and predict these changes to prevent or minimize the potential impact on the environment and human-made structures.

Coastal Plains

Coastal plains are relatively flat areas of land adjacent to a coast or shoreline.  These areas can be influenced by tides, erosion, and deposition of sediment.

Col

A col is a low point or saddle in a mountain range or ridge that separates two peaks.  The term is also used to describe a gap in a ridge between two hills or mountains.

Colluvium

Colluvium refers to the loose material that accumulates at the base of a hill or slope due to erosion and weathering.  It is composed of rocks, stones, and soil that have been transported by gravity down the slope.

Color Code

Color code is a system of using different colors to represent different values or categories on a map.  For example, a topographic map may use different colors to represent different elevations, such as green for low elevations and brown for high elevations.  A color code can also be used to represent different types of land use, geological features, or other information on a map.

Color Key

A color key is a legend that explains the meaning of colors or symbols used on a map or chart. It helps to identify the different features or data displayed on the map.  A color key is usually placed in a corner of the map and can be referred to while reading the map.

Compass

Compass is a navigational tool that has been used for centuries to aid in finding directions. It consists of a magnetic needle that is suspended and free to rotate.  The needle aligns itself with the Earth’s magnetic field, pointing to the North magnetic pole. The compass rose, a graphic representation of a compass, is used on maps and charts to indicate the cardinal directions: North, East, South, and West.  The compass rose is often accompanied by a color key or legend, which is a guide to the colors used on the map and their corresponding meanings.

Compass Rose

A compass rose is a circular design on a map that shows the orientation of cardinal directions, such as north, south, east, and west.  It is usually located in the center of the map, and the cardinal directions are labeled around the circle.  The compass rose helps the reader to orient themselves and understand the direction of the map.

Composite Map

A composite map is a map that is created by combining two or more individual maps to form a single map.  The individual maps can be of different scales, orientations, or projections. This method is commonly used to create large-scale maps of an area that cover a broad range of information, such as topography, geology, or land use.

Compression

Compression is the process of squeezing or pressing something together, usually with great force.  In geology, compression occurs when two tectonic plates move towards each other, resulting in the formation of mountains or other geological features.  Compression can also occur in soils, rocks, and other materials under pressure, causing them to become denser and more compact. In civil engineering, compression is an important consideration in designing structures such as buildings, bridges, and roads, as they need to withstand the forces exerted on them by compression.

Computed Position

Computed position is a term used in navigation to describe the position of a ship, plane, or other vehicle, calculated using various instruments and methods. These methods may include using a sextant, GPS, or other navigation equipment.  The computed position is an estimate of the vehicle’s location, which may be subject to error due to various factors such as environmental conditions or instrument accuracy.

Conduction

Conduction is the transfer of heat or electricity through a substance or material, without any flow of the substance itself.  In geology, conduction can refer to the transfer of heat through the Earth’s crust or other rock formations.

Confluence

A confluence is a point where two or more rivers, streams, or other bodies of water meet.  It can also refer to the merging of two or more geological features, such as valleys or canyons.  The confluence is usually marked by the mixing of the waters or by a distinct change in the features of the landscape.

Conformal Projection

Conformal projection is a map projection that preserves angles locally, which means that shapes are accurately represented in small areas. It is useful for navigational purposes and is often used in aviation and marine navigation.  One common conformal projection is the Mercator projection, which is commonly used for world maps.

Conglomerate

Conglomerate is a type of sedimentary rock that is made up of rounded fragments of various sizes, such as pebbles, cobbles, and boulders.  The fragments are typically held together by a matrix of sand, silt, or clay.  Conglomerate can form in a variety of environments, such as riverbeds, beaches, and alluvial fans.

Construction Survey

Construction survey is a type of survey that is conducted to provide information about the location, dimensions, and elevation of structures, such as buildings, bridges, and roads.  The survey is used to determine the placement of foundations, utilities, and other infrastructure.  Construction surveys are typically conducted before and during the construction process to ensure that the project is built according to the specifications.

Contiguous United States

Contiguous United States refers to the 48 states that are located on the continent of North America and are adjacent to one another, excluding Alaska and Hawaii.  This term is commonly used to distinguish the contiguous states from the non-contiguous states and territories.  The contiguous United States covers approximately 3.1 million square miles and is home to about 85% of the country’s population.

Continental

Continental refers to anything related to or located on a continent. In the context of geography, continental can refer to continental landmasses, such as the seven continents, as well as continental shelves and plates.  The term is also used in other fields, such as biology, to refer to species that are found on a specific continent.

Continental Drift

Continental drift is the movement of the Earth’s continents over time due to the shifting of tectonic plates.  This movement can result in the formation of mountains, rift valleys, and other features.  The theory of continental drift was first proposed in the early 20th century by Alfred Wegener.

In order to accurately create a contour map, a control network must be established.  A control network is a series of known points on the ground that are used as a reference for mapping.  These points are typically marked with a survey monument or other permanent marker.  A coordinate system is also used to establish the location of these points and the contour lines.  This system uses a grid of horizontal and vertical lines to create a reference system for locating points on a map.

Contour Line

A contour line is a line that connects points of equal elevation on a map.  These lines help to show the shape and slope of the terrain.  The contour interval is the vertical distance between two adjacent contour lines, which can vary depending on the scale of the map and the ruggedness of the terrain.

Contour Map

A contour map, also known as a topographic map, is a type of map that shows the shape and elevation of the land using contour lines.  Contour lines connect points on the map that have the same elevation, creating a visual representation of the land’s surface.  These lines are typically drawn at regular intervals, with closer lines indicating steeper slopes and wider spacing indicating flatter areas.  Contour maps are commonly used in outdoor activities like hiking and mountaineering to help plan routes and assess the difficulty of terrain.  They are also useful in a range of scientific and engineering fields, including geology, hydrology, and civil engineering, to study the physical characteristics of the land.

Control

In surveying, control refers to a set of points or markers that are established to provide a reference system for other measurements.  These points are typically located at known elevations and coordinates and are used to ensure accuracy and consistency in subsequent surveys.  Control points can also be used to establish the orientation of a map or plan.

Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of a fluid such as air or water.  This movement can create convection cells, which can affect weather patterns and climate.

Convergence

Convergence is the coming together of two or more tectonic plates.  This process can result in the formation of mountain ranges, earthquakes, and volcanic activity.  These concepts are important to understand when studying the Earth’s physical processes and how they shape our planet.

Control Network

A control network is a network of survey points or markers used to control the position of other features on a map or in a survey.  These points are typically precisely surveyed and located using specialized equipment, such as GPS or total stations.  The positions of these control points are used to ensure that the features in the survey or map are accurately placed in their correct location.  A control network is important in any large-scale mapping project, as it helps to ensure that the map is accurate and reliable.

Coordinate System

A coordinate system is a system that is used to define the position of points in space. In cartography and surveying, a coordinate system is typically used to define the position of features on a map or in a survey.  The most common coordinate system used is the Cartesian coordinate system, which is based on a grid of lines that are perpendicular to each other.  Coordinates are used to represent the location of a point within a coordinate system, and are typically given as a pair of numbers (x, y) that correspond to the point’s position along the x and y axes.

Copper Plate Engraving 

Copper plate engraving is a traditional method of printing maps, which involves engraving the map onto a copper plate.  The engraving process involves cutting the map design into the copper plate using specialized tools.  Once the plate has been engraved, it is inked and pressed onto paper to create a print of the map.  Copper plate engraving was commonly used in the 18th and 19th centuries, and is still used today by some mapmakers who specialize in creating antique-style maps.

Coral Reef

A coral reef is a type of marine ecosystem that is made up of coral and other organisms.  Coral reefs are found in warm, shallow waters and are known for their vibrant colors and diverse marine life.  Coral reefs are important habitats for a wide range of marine species, including fish, crustaceans, and mollusks.  They also provide important ecosystem services, such as protecting shorelines from erosion and storm damage.  Coral reefs are under threat from a range of factors, including climate change, pollution, and overfishing, and are in need of conservation efforts to ensure their survival.

Craton

A craton is a stable, ancient block of the earth’s crust that has not undergone significant tectonic activity for a long period of time.  Cratons are typically found in the interior of continents, and they are characterized by their thick, stable crust and low levels of seismic activity.  The oldest and most stable cratons are found in the Canadian Shield, the Australian Outback, and the African continent.

Creep

Creep can be observed through the use of creepmeters, instruments that measure the displacement of a point on a fault over time.  By analyzing the data collected by creepmeters, scientists can gain insights into the behavior of faults and the stresses acting on them.  Creep can also be identified by examining the features of the landscape, such as tilted trees and fences or distorted roadways, that result from the slow movement of the ground.

Creep is an important consideration in many fields, including engineering and geology.  It can cause damage to buildings, roads, and other infrastructure, and can also affect the stability of slopes and hillsides.  By studying and monitoring creep, researchers can better understand the risks associated with crustal deformation and work to mitigate its potential impacts.

Crest 

A crest is the highest point of a hill or a mountain range.  It is the point where the slope of the land begins to descend on both sides. In topography, crests are often used to describe the ridge of a mountain or a hill that runs along its top, forming a sharp edge.  The term is also used to describe the highest point of a wave, such as a tidal wave or a tsunami.  The crest of a wave is the point at which it reaches its maximum height before it breaks and crashes onto shore.

Crevasse

Crevasse refers to a deep crack or fissure in the surface of a glacier, often caused by the movement of the ice mass.  Crevasse can also occur on a mountainside or in a canyon.  They are particularly hazardous for hikers, climbers, and skiers who may unknowingly fall into them.  Crevasse rescue techniques are an important part of mountain and glacier travel.

Cross-Hatching  

In geology, cross-sections are used to display the internal structure and features of geological formations, including sedimentary rocks, faults, and folds.  Engineers use cross-sections to analyze the internal structure of a construction site, including the underlying soil, bedrock, and other geological features.  In architecture, cross-sections are used to show the internal structure and features of a building, including walls, floors, and structural supports.

Cross-sections are created by drawing a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane and cutting through the object being analyzed.  The resulting diagram provides a view of the internal structure of the object, including the depth, elevation, and shape of various features.

In geology, critical elevation refers to the height above sea level where a change in landscape occurs.  It is often used to determine the boundary between two different geological formations or the point where a river changes from a steep gradient to a gentle slope. Critical elevation is an important concept in geology and can be used to determine the location of oil and gas reserves or other natural resources.

Cross Sectioning

Cross sectioning refers to the process of creating a visual representation of a cross-section of a three-dimensional object, such as a landform or building.  In topography, cross sections are created to show the vertical elevation of a landform, like a mountain or hill, along a specific line or path.  These sections are often used to analyze changes in elevation or slope, and to create detailed maps and charts of topographical features.

Cut-and-Fill

Cut-and-fill is a common technique used in construction where the earth is excavated from one area (the cut) and used to fill in another area (the fill). This technique is used to create level areas for construction or to modify the shape of the land to meet the needs of the project.

Cutbank

Cutbank refers to a slope or cliff that is formed by the erosion of a stream or river.  The cutbank is typically steeper than the surrounding terrain and is constantly eroding as the water cuts away at the soil and rock.  The shape and size of the cutbank depend on the velocity of the water, the type of soil or rock, and the geology of the area.

Cut-Off 

Cut-off refers to a channel or ditch that is dug to divert water away from a certain area.  This technique is commonly used to control flooding or to redirect water for irrigation purposes.

Cutoff line 

Cutoff line is a line that is drawn on a map or survey to indicate where the surface of the land has been cut away or removed, typically in preparation for construction or excavation.  The cutoff line is an important reference point for determining the depth and shape of the excavation.

Cyclopean Eye

Cyclopean eye is a term used in vision science to refer to the perceived 3D visual information gathered by both eyes working together as a single entity. The concept is named after the mythical creature Cyclops, which was known for having a single large eye in the center of its forehead.  The term “cyclopean” refers to the integration of the two slightly different images received by the eyes into a single, unified perception of the environment.  This helps humans to perceive depth, distance, and spatial relationships in the world around them.